C2.2 Molecules in Motion Molecules that compose matter are in constant motion (translational, rotational, vibrational). Energy may be transferred from one object to another during collisions between molecules.
C2.2A Describe conduction in terms of molecules bumping into each other to transfer energy. Explain why there is better conduction in solids and liquids than gases.
C2.2B Describe the various states of matter in terms of the motion and arrangement of the molecules (atoms) making up the substance.
C3.3 Heating Impacts Heating increases the kinetic (translational, rotational, and vibrational) energy of the atoms composing elements and the molecules or ions composing compounds. As the kinetic (translational) energy of the atoms, molecules, or ions increases, the temperature of the matter increases. Heating a sample of a crystalline solid increases the kinetic (vibrational) energy of the atoms, molecules, or ions. When the kinetic (vibrational) energy becomes great enough, the crystalline structure breaks down, and the solid melts.
C3.3A Describe how heat is conducted in a solid.
C3.3B Describe melting on a molecular level.
P4.p1 Kinetic Molecular Theory Properties of solids, liquids, and gases are explained by a model of matter that is composed of tiny particles in motion.
P4.p1A For a substance that can exist in all three phases, describe the relative motion of the particles in each of the phases.
P4.p1B For a substance that can exist in all three phases, make a drawing that shows the arrangement and relative spacing of the particles in each of the phases.
P4.p1C For a simple compound, present a drawing that shows the number of particles in the system does not change as a result of a phase change.
P4.p2 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures Elements are a class of substances composed of a single kind of atom. Compounds are composed of two or more different elements chemically combined. Mixtures are composed of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically combined. Each element and compound has physical and chemical properties, such as boiling point, density, color, and conductivity, which are independent of the amount of the sample.
P4.p2A Distinguish between an element, compound, or mixture based on drawings or formulae.
P4.p2B Identify a pure substance (element or compound) based on unique chemical and physical properties.
P4.p2C Separate mixtures based on the differences in physical properties of the individual components.
P4.p2D Recognize that the properties of a compound differ from those of its individual elements.
C4.3 Properties of Substances Differences in the physical and chemical properties of substances are explained by the arrangement of the atoms, ions, or molecules of the substances and by the strength of the forces of attraction between the atoms, ions, or molecules.
C4.3A Recognize that substances that are solid at room temperature have stronger attractive forces than liquids at room temperature, which have stronger attractive forces than gases at room temperature.
C4.3B Recognize that solids have a more ordered, regular arrangement of their particles than liquids and that liquids are more ordered than gases.
C4.8 Atomic Structure Electrons, protons, and neutrons are parts of the atom and have measurable properties, including mass and, in the case of protons and electrons, charge. The nuclei of atoms are composed of protons and neutrons. A kind of force that is only evident at nuclear distances holds the particles of the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion between the protons.
C4.8A Identify the location, relative mass, and charge for electrons, protons, and neutrons.
C4.8B Describe the atom as mostly empty space with an extremely small, dense nucleus consisting of the protons and neutrons and an electron cloud surrounding the nucleus.
C4.8C Recognize that protons repel each other and that a strong force needs to be present to keep the nucleus intact.
C4.8D Give the number of electrons and protons present if the fluoride ion has a -1 charge.
C4.9 Periodic Table In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing number of protons (called the atomic number). Vertical groups in the periodic table (families) have similar physical and chemical properties due to the same outer electron structures.
C4.9A Identify elements with similar chemical and physical properties using the periodic table.
C4.10 Neutral Atoms, Ions, and Isotopes A neutral atom of any element will contain the same number of protons and electrons. Ions are charged particles with an unequal number of protons and electrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons and essentially the same chemical and physical properties.
C4.10A List the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons for any given ion or isotope.
C4.10B Recognize that an element always contains the same number of protons.
C2.5x Nuclear Stability Nuclear stability is related to a decrease in potential energy when the nucleus forms from protons and neutrons. If the neutron/proton ratio is unstable, the element will undergo radioactive decay. The rate of decay is characteristic of each isotope; the time for half the parent nuclei to decay is called the half-life. Comparison of the parent/daughter nuclei can be used to determine the age of a sample. Heavier elements are formed from the fusion of lighter elements in the stars.
C2.5a Determine the age of materials using the ratio of stable and unstable isotopes of a particular type.
C2.r5b Illustrate how elements can change in nuclear reactions using balanced equations. C2.r5c Describe the potential energy changes as two protons approach each other.
C2.r5d Describe how and where all the elements on earth were formed.
C3.5x Mass Defect Nuclear reactions involve energy changes many times the magnitude of chemical changes. In chemical reactions matter is conserved, but in nuclear reactions a small loss in mass (mass defect) will account for the tremendous release of energy. The energy released in nuclear reactions can be calculated from the mass defect using E = mc2.
C3.5a Explain why matter is not conserved in nuclear reactions. C4.8 Atomic Structure Electrons, protons, and neutrons are parts of the atom and have measurable properties, including mass and, in the case of protons and electrons, charge. The nuclei of atoms are composed of protons and neutrons. A kind of force that is only evident at nuclear distances holds the particles of the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion between the protons.
C4.8A Identify the location, relative mass, and charge for electrons, protons, and neutrons.
C4.8B Describe the atom as mostly empty space with an extremely small, dense nucleus consisting of the protons and neutrons and an electron cloud surrounding the nucleus.
C4.8C Recognize that protons repel each other and that a strong force needs to be present to keep the nucleus intact.
C4.8D Give the number of electrons and protons present if the fluoride ion has a -1 charge.
C4.9 Periodic Table In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing number of protons (called the atomic number). Vertical groups in the periodic table (families) have similar physical and chemical properties due to the same outer electron structures.
C4.9A Identify elements with similar chemical and physical properties using the periodic table.
C5.5 Chemical Bonds — Trends An atom’s electron configuration, particularly of the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. The interactions between atoms that hold them together in molecules or between oppositely charged ions are called chemical bonds.
C5.5A Predict if the bonding between two atoms of different elements will be primarily ionic or covalent.
C5.4B Predict the formula for binary compounds of main group elements.
C5.5x Chemical Bonds Chemical bonds can be classified as ionic, covalent, and metallic. The properties of a compound depend on the types of bonds holding the atoms together.
C5.5c Draw Lewis structures for simple compounds.
C5.5d Compare the relative melting point, electrical and thermal conductivity and hardness for ionic, metallic, and covalent compounds.
C5.5e Relate the melting point, hardness, and electrical and thermal conductivity of a substance to its structure.
C4.2 Nomenclature All compounds have unique names that are determined systematically.
C4.2A Name simple binary compounds using their formulae.
C4.2B Given the name, write the formula of simple binary compounds.
C4.2x Nomenclature All molecular and ionic compounds have unique names that are determined systematically.
C4.2c Given a formula, name the compound.
C4.2d Given the name, write the formula of ionic and molecular compounds.
C4.2e Given the formula for a simple hydrocarbon, draw and name the isomers.
C5.2 Chemical Changes Chemical changes can occur when two substances, elements, or compounds interact and produce one or more different substances whose physical and chemical properties are different from the interacting substances. When substances undergo chemical change, the number of atoms in the reactants is the same as the number of atoms in the products. This can be shown through simple balancing of chemical equations. Mass is conserved when substances undergo chemical change. The total mass of the interacting substances (reactants) is the same as the total mass of the substances produced (products).
C5.2A Balance simple chemical equations applying the conservation of matter.
C5.2B Distinguish between chemical and physical changes in terms of the properties of the reactants and products.
C5.2C Draw pictures to distinguish the relationships between atoms in physical and chemical changes.
C5.2x Balancing Equations A balanced chemical equation will allow one to predict the amount of product formed.
C5.2d Calculate the mass of a particular compound formed from the masses of starting materials.
C3.4 Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions Chemical interactions either release energy to the environment (exothermic) or absorb energy from the environment (endothermic).
C3.4A Use the terms endothermic and exothermic correctly to describe chemical reactions in the laboratory.
C3.4B Explain why chemical reactions will either release or absorb energy
C4.7x Solutions The physical properties of a solution are determined by the concentration of solute.
C4.7a Investigate the difference in the boiling point or freezing point of pure water and a salt solution.
C4.7b Compare the density of pure water to that of a sugar solution.
C5.7 Acids and Bases Acids and bases are important classes of chemicals that are recognized by easily observed properties in the laboratory. Acids and bases will neutralize each other. Acid formulas usually begin with hydrogen, and base formulas are a metal with a hydroxide ion. As the pH decreases, a solution becomes more acidic. A difference of one pH unit is a factor of 10 in hydrogen ion concentration.
C5.7A Recognize formulas for common inorganic acids, carboxylic acids, and bases formed from families I and II.
C5.7B Predict products of an acid-base neutralization.
C5.7C Describe tests that can be used to distinguish an acid from a base.
C5.7D Classify various solutions as acidic or basic, given their pH.
C5.7E Explain why lakes with limestone or calcium carbonate experience less adverse effects from acid rain than lakes with granite beds.
C5.8 Carbon Chemistry The chemistry of carbon is important. Carbon atoms can bond to one another in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of structures, including synthetic polymers, oils, and the large molecules essential to life.
C5.8A Draw structural formulas for up to ten carbon chains of simple hydrocarbons.
C5.8B Draw isomers for simple hydrocarbons.
C5.8C Recognize that proteins, starches, and other large biological molecules are polymers.
